“The Changes as a Mirror of the Mind: The Evolution of the Zhouyi (周易) in China and Beyond”1

A nineteenth century Chinese commentary on the Yijing (易經) states succinctly: “The Changes is the mirror of men’s minds” (易者人心之鏡也).”2 In other words, there are as many versions of the Yijing as there are readers of the document and commentators upon it.3 According to the editors of late imperial China’s most important literary compilation, the Complete Collection of the Four Treasuries (四庫全書; hereafter, the Four Treasuries), interpreting the Yijing is like playing chess, no two games are alike, and there are infinite possibilities.4 This was especially the case because the Classic of Changes was not merely a book of wisdom; it was also a divinatory text, a cryptic and often highly personal guide to “the mind of Heaven” (天心).5 Over the course of more than two millennia, thousands of commentaries were written on the Changes, each reflecting a distinctive technical, philological, religious, philosophical, literary, social or political point of view.6 Interpretive variables included life experiences (education, personal associations, career, etc.) as well as historical events such as natural disasters, regime changes, rebellions and foreign invasions). Intellectual fashions, which both influenced and were influenced by different approaches to the Yijing, operated not only in